An Introduction to Native American Literature Essay Example for Free

An Introduction to Native American Literature Essay Native American literatures embrace the memories of creation stories, the tragic wisdom of native ceremonies, trickster narratives, and the outcome of chance and other occurrences in the most diverse cultures in the world. These distinctive literatures, eminent in both oral performances and in the imagination of written narratives, cannot be discovered in reductive social science translations or altogether understood in the historical constructions of culture in one common name. (Vizenor 1) Since the end of the 15th century, the migration of Europeans to America, and their importation of Africans as slaves, has led to centuries of conflict and adjustment between Old and New World societies. Europeans created most of the early written historical record about Native Americans after the colonists immigration to the Americas. 3 Many Native cultures were matrilineal; the people occupied lands for use of the entire community, for hunting or agriculture. Europeans at that time had patriarchal cultures and had developed concepts of individual property rights with respect to land that were extremely different. The differences in cultures between the established Native Americans and immigrant Europeans, as well as shifting alliances among different nations of each culture through the centuries, caused extensive political tension, ethnic violence and social disruption. The Native Americans suffered high fatalities from the contact with infectious Eurasian diseases, to which they had no acquired immunity. See more: how to start an essay Epidemics after European contact caused the greatest loss of life for indigenous populations. In 1830, the U. S. Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, authorizing the government to relocate Native Americans from their homelands within established states to lands west of the Mississippi River, accommodating European-American expansion. Perhaps the most important moment of governmental detribalization came with the passing of the Dawes Act in 1887 which set aside 160 acres for each Indian on the reservation, and opened the â€Å"leftovers† up for settlement. According to the U. S. Bureau of the Census (1894), the Indian wars under the government of the United States have been more than 40 in number. They have cost the lives of about 19,000 white men, women and children, including those killed in individual combats, and the lives of about 30,000 Indians. Native Americans were thus pushed out from their own lands and were forced to live in small reservations assigned by the federal government who claimed that setting the Indians on the course to civilisation best ensured their survival. Tribal customs were then forcibly altered and nomadic tribes became sedentary. All Native Americans felt the impact of the new reservation policies, which sought to isolate and contain Indians to make room for an expanding American nation. At the same time that Native Americans were being excluded from the nation, white Americans began to look to them as the source of a unique national identity and literature, distinct from European traditions. Literature from the period depicting Indian characters was incredibly popular, and many works are still celebrated as classics, including James Fenimore Coopers The Last of the Mohicans (1826), Catharine Maria Sedgwicks Hope Leslie (1827), and Henry Wadsworth Longfellows Song of Hiawatha (1855), to name only a few. These texts employ the trope of the disappearing Indian, which represents the deaths of Indians as natural, similar to the changing of the seasons or the setting of the sun, rather than the result of political exclusion or social discrimination. Thus the disappearance of Indians from the American social landscape was not only depicted within this body of writing but also implicitly approved of. At the same time the government sponsored authors and art programs; the proletarian themes of discovery, regionalism, and tourism were new forms of dominance over Native Americans. Therefore, early Native American authors wrote within a hostile political climate and in response to a dominant literary tradition that sentimentalized and condoned the death of Indians. But they found the means to engage with their detractors by authoring their own accounts of Indians that challenged stereotypical beliefs, demanded equal political rights, and proved that Indians were neither disappearing nor silent. Native American authors have faithfully presented some of these issues of inherent native rights, the duplicities of federal policies, and the burdens of racial identities in their short stories and novels. Wynema by Sophia Alice Callahan published in 1891, was the first novel attributed to a Native American author. Callahan, who was a mixedblood Creek, was aware of tribal issues at the time and therefore devoted most of her novel to native issues. Since then many novels by distinguished Native American authors have been published. One of the most important writers among Native Americans in the 1930’s was D’Arcy McNickle, a member of the Flathead tribe of Montana. His first novel The Surrounded was published in 1936, two years after the Indian Reorganization Act was passed near the end of the Depression in the United States. His novel is the poignant story of a mix-breed family and the tragedy of their exclusion from both the red and the white worlds. Because of cultural misunderstandings, which begin between the Indian mother and Spanish father, suspicion, fear, and finally death take their children. The novel is a history of alienation. Kenneth Lincoln who coined the term Native American Rennaissance pointed out that in the late-1960s and early-1970s, a generation of Native Americans were coming of age who were the first of their tribe to receive a substantial English-language education, particularly outside of standard Indian boarding schools and in universities. Conditions for Native people, while still very harsh, had moved beyond the survival conditions of the early half of the century. The beginnings of a project of historical revisionism, which attempted to document—from a Native perspective—the history of the invasion and colonization of the North American continent had inspired a great deal of public interest in Native cultures. During this time of change, a group of Native writers emerged, both poets and novelists, who in only a few years expanded the Native American literary canon.

An Icon in the Window - An original biography on Bill Gates :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  What does it take to become a cultural icon? Through the perspective of the world today, just a few of the basics might be fame, power, IQ, and enough motivation to utilize it all. But did we forget something? Perhaps. How about all of that, and also enough money and power gobble up any and every company that may stand in your way? This is especially true if you happen to be the CEO of an $18-million company called Microsoft, and even more so if you bare the name â€Å"Bill Gates† on your VISA card.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Mr. Gates began his life in Seattle, Washington. He was born on the 28th of October in 1955. Being the middle child in his family, he found himself often working by his lonesome due to his differing interests from his siblings. As a boy, he was sent to Lakeside School; an all-boys prep school. Seemingly though, not even 40 years ago was the world safe from his genius, being that the school’s mini-computer was Bill’s primary source of amusement. It was at Lakeside that he first learned how to ‘hack’ code and write programs. In fact, his first program was not anywhere close the eloquent interfaces of Word 97, Encarta, or Windows. No fancy-shamncy monitor. Not even a keyboard or mouse. It was a tic-tac-toe game where he and other classmates would flip switches and wait for minutes to get the computer’s output. Nonetheless, everyone must begin somewhere, and it was here that it all started.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In his later school years, Gates met Paul Allen, and the two co-founded what would eventually become Microsoft. The dynamic duo’s first commercially-based job was to write up a program to manage payroll services. This first job worked out so well, that Gates and Allen later formed a pint-sized company called â€Å"Traf-O-Data† which studied traffic patterns for small towns around Seattle. Microsoft was slowly taking it’s first baby steps into the technology business.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Gates was 19 when he graduated from high school and went on to Harvard. There he kept working with Paul Allen night and day in their dorm room to create one of the first micro-processors that would run the latest in computer technology: software. The computer was known as the MITs Altair, and was the first computer to be accompanied by the BASIC computer programming language, as well as Intel’s 8088 8 KHz processor.

Communication Exersise Formal Report Essay

By Business Consultant Executive summary: Mirror Image needs an overhaul in communication between management and workers. After collecting information collected through the CEO and a resent staff survey, it is apparent that certain things are restricting good communication. With the help of great pre-existing research this report identifies several major issues. Distrust of management has led to limited communication, as the workers feel this protects them. I suggest this course of action: 1. Create a transparent workplace and reassure staff about future redundancies. 2. Invest in communication courses for managers that deal with open conversation. 3. Actively encourage ‘two way’ communication between managers and workers. 4. Promote team leaders (foremen) that communicate well. This report was commissioned by the CEO and will help identify the communication problems at Mirror Image, particularly between factory workers and managers. Firstly the report will bring together relevant information on the subject, secondly identify the problems with provided information and lastly it will suggest some causes of action to help improve communications at IM. 2.0 Analysis of communication: 2.1 Literature review: Communication Managers need more than technical skills, communication is a leaders main channel for inspiration and engagement, whilst helping avoid serious problems. Communication classes for management have been proven effective by large pharmaceutical company AstraZeneca, large amounts of evidence suggest educating managers about communication is very beneficial (Walters & Norton 2007). Communication classes for management can be tailored to address concerns. It’s usually hard to identifying issues resulting in poor communication. Luckily there is a wealth of information on the subject. Newberry & Conrad (2010) delivered a journal dedicated to improving communication skills in the workplace. Relevance established, the authors list twenty four key communication guidelines to aim for. Relevant key ideas: * Initiate open Discussion(Organizational communication) * Create information networks â€Å" * Provide feedback â€Å" * Building trust(Interpersonal, involve positive verbal/non-verbal communication) Trust is gained by a manager, when subordinates have certainty about events. Certainty gained from open discussion, where both parties have a say. Trust leads to increased productivity (Bach, 2006). â€Å"The best disinfectant is sunshine (Allen, 2012)† Power Bases Gupta and Sharma (2008) believe Power bases play a pivotal role in worker compliance. They make a distinction between harsh power bases (HPB) and soft power bases (SPB). They conclude that SPB are more effective in conjunction with quality communication then HPB. The SPB categories are expert, referent, information and dependence legitimacy. The HPB categories are coercion, reward, position legitimacy (French & Raven 1959). Silence The theory ‘the spiral of silence’ by Noelle-Neumann (1974) talks about how in groups, individuals will not raise comments or arguments, when they feel their views aren’t shared by the other members. The idea is important when considering employee involvement in the decision making process. Silence also occurs when there are trust issues. If someone believes what they say will be used against them, they will remain silent. Comment made by UK charity ‘Public Concerns at Work’, in a UK newspaper: â€Å"The knowledge that there is a culture of silence in the workplace both encourages and shields the corrupt and dishonest (stern, 2008).† In this instance the negligence of management was extreme. However silence can still facilitate negligence in management, no matter the severity. Therefore, silence in its adolescence is bad, if left untreated it could turn into something much worse. When participants in an organization discuss issues at meetings, certain points should be taken into account. Levasseur (1995) provides ten points, the relevant ones are: 2. Agree on a shared purpose. 4. Record ideas, issues and agreements. 6. Manage tasks and teamwork simultaneously. 7. Answer 4 key questions about every agenda topic. 8. Decide on next steps as a group. This list highlights the fact that communication is a ‘two way street’. Silence occurs in Organisations when these recommendations are not met. 2.2 Staff survey: (full results can be found in the appendix) The staff survey highlighted serious problems, with MI’s factory workers. The majority of workers gave a negative response to nearly every question. The workers seem to be more aware of the issues then the managers. The survey provided an anonymous outlet for factory workers where there previously wasn’t one. The survey should therefore be regarded as an accurate representation of worker/manager views. However some questions contain results that suggest ‘attribution errors’. Attribution errors effect perceptions of positive or negative situations, and whether it’s internalised or externalised (Philip, 1985), evidence will not be taken from these afflicted questions. Figure [ 1 ]~ 60% of workers believe they are insufficiently educated on their job role. Workers don’t receive enough instruction about their specific role in the company. This leads to enormous inefficiencies, as workers are left to pick up the pieces. Figure 2 ~60% of workers do not have confidence in management. The lanes of communication needed are not there. A workplace without trust is inefficient. Figure [ 3 ] ~80% of workers are prevented from voicing their concerns. Workers are scared that what they say will be viewed favourably. They are also worried about getting fired. They are already inherently disadvantaged, because their only form of vertical communication is ‘logical persuasion’. Figure 4 A lot of managers don’t involve workers. Decisions are probably made without them knowing. The workers probable feel helpless. Figure 5 All managers consider themselves approachable. Question three was the most unanimous result from the entire survey. This suggests managers don’t openly discourage communication. They most discourage communication other ways. They are in positions of power, making them more accountable then individual workers. 2.3 Case Study: Mirror Image shows a general lack of communication between management and their respective subordinates, brought about by distrust and fear. Management is distrusted because the workers fear clear communication will ultimately leave them jobless. Fear keeps what little interpersonal communication they have focused on safe subjects, like the ‘Rugby world cup’. Fear is a powerful tool used by harsher power bases. Managers at MI resort to harsh power bases because they come with the job (legitimate and coercive bases). Softer more progressive bases require reform and effort. The need for softer bases is evident in the formation of several factory leaders. One mentioned was ‘Rick’ who became a ‘go between’ for workers. Workers like Rick display reverent power that managers and the foreman lack. This is an obvious inefficiency. Effectively doubling the time spent communicating. The ‘spiral of silence’ impacts employees, because their ideas are not considered my management. Previously efforts in communication where hampered by an uninterested CEO. Relying on memo boards is extremely impersonal and should only be used for functional information. This lack of effective communication set a low standard for workers and managers, this caused the distrust between them. Managers didn’t involve workers and don’t ask for their opinions, while workers used inefficient mediums of exchange. The loss in productivity isn’t easy to quantify, however managers being disinterested in workers activities may further decrease productivity (Mayo, 1930). 3.0 Conclusion: MI has significant issues between factory workers and management. Brought about by lacklustre communication, the issues were mostly caused by distrust. When analysing the workers survey it was obvious that they sore serious problems with the way MI was run. NOT FINISHED 4.0 Recommendation: These recommendations will help managers and workers communicate more efficiently, remembering as CEO you should lead by example. Transparency should be deployed in every facet of the organisation, to tackle the large trust issues hampering communication. Start by reassuring staff that jobs will not be going under your leadership, making shore you don’t promise something you can’t keep. Try having reviewable performance evaluation  systems. If transparency is achieved certainty will result, certainty in time will bring a trusting workforce. Use communication classes to teach the basics, from subtle nonverbal communication to lifting the level of communication entirely (extensive list provided in index). Include shifting manager’s power bases from harsh to soft. Only bother teaching the managers as it will cost less, while achieving more. Managers should be encouraged to show an interest in the workers and the work they are doing. Managers should encourage ‘two way’ communication, make them answer employee questions fully. If they are not receiving questions have them rhetorically answer some of their own. Enforce these measures by increasing the transparency down the chain of command. Ask for updates on progress regularly. Removing the memo board is a good idea, in favour of orders being communicated down the chain of command, to ensure ‘two way’ communication. Only process information should be distributed through other mediums. Goals should be produced by both the workers and managers. This should reduce some of the ‘spiral of silence’ effects. Finally the team leaders (foremen) have proven to be a bottle neck in communication. Seek to promote workers who display natural ability to communicate. For example ‘Rick’ the employee mentioned by you would be a fine candidate. These leaders will hopefully bridge the gap between workers and management. 5.0 List of references: 1. Allen, Christopher J,D.V.M., J.D. 2012, â€Å"4 Ways to Provide Transparency in the Workplace†, DVM, vol. 43, no. 10, pp. 54-55. 2. Bach, P. 2006, Workplace trust hard to gain, but consistency, transparency key, Washington, United States, Washington.(ProQuestID- 463161676) 3. Daniel A. Wren, Arthur G. Bedeian, John D. Breeze, (2002) â€Å"The foundations of Henri Fayol’s administrative theory†, Management Decision, Vol. 40 Iss: 9, pp.906 – 918 state: It was not until the Storr’s translation that Fayol’s (1949) 4. French, J. R. and B. Raven (1959). â€Å"The bases of social power.† Studies in social power 150: 167 5. Gupta, B. & Sharma, N.K. 2008, â€Å"Compliance with Bases of Power and Subordinates’ Perception of Superiors: Moderating Effect of Quality of Interaction†, Singapore Management Review, vol. 30, no. 1, pp. 1-24. (ProQuestID-226850816) 6. Levasseur, R.E. 1995, â€Å"Breaking the silence†, Successful Meetings, vol. 44, no. 13, pp. 61-61.(ProQuestID-206037363) 7. Mayo, Elton (1930). Hawthorne and the Western Electric Company. The Social Problems of an Industrial Civilisation. Routledge. 8. Newberry, R. & Conrad, D. 2010, â€Å"Identification of Outcome Based Business Communication Skills†, Allied Academies International Conference.Academy of Organizational Culture, Communications and Conflict.Proceedings, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 28-32.(ProQuestID- 807539416) 9. Noelle-Neumann, E.(1974) â€Å"The spiral of silence†: A theory of public opinion. Journal of Communication, 24, 43-3 10. Philip E. Tetlock. Sept 1985, â€Å"Accountability: A Social Check on the Fundamental Attribution Error†, Social Psychology Quarterly, Vol. 48, No. 3, pp. 227-236 11. Stern, S. Sept 9 2008, Pssst . . . get smart and wipe out whistleblowing, The Financial Times, United Kingdom 12. Walters, D. & Norton, D. 2007, â€Å"Leadership communication – the AstraZeneca way†, Strategic Communication Management, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 16-19. (ProQuestID-203573719) | | 6.0 Appendix: 6.1 Question from Survey: Factory Worker Questions 1. I have a clear idea about my job role. 2. I am satisfied with the performance evaluation system. 3. Sometime I’m given tasks without the required resources (including time and knowledge) to complete them. (possible attribution error) 4. I have confidence in the intentions of the top management team 5. I feel comfortable voicing my concerns to senior managers. 6. I have a voice in the organizational decision making process. 7. I trust the people with which I work 8. I am treated fairly at work 9. I am satisfied with my work. 10. I feel committed to this organisation Management Questions 1. I try to seek employees’ input when making decisions. 2. I tend to closely supervise my subordinates. 3. I consider myself an approachable manager(possible attribution error) 4. I tend to customize my communication with employees to fit specific situations 5. I consider my workplace as rather political 6. I am satisfied with my work. 7. I feel committed to this organisation 6.2 Results from Survey: | Workers n=100| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | q1| q2| q3| q4| q5| q6| q7| q8| q9| q10| Completely Disagree| 20| 15| 10| 35| 60| 72| 36| 23| 0| 5| Mostly Disagree| 40| 45| 15| 25| 20| 24| 25| 32| 19| 55| Neither| 20| 20| 10| 25| 10| 4| 30| 28| 52| 25| Mostly Agree| 10| 20| 40| 15| 10| 0| 9| 7| 23| 10| Completely Agree| 10| 0| 25| 0| 0| 0| 0| 10| 6| 5| | | | Managers n=20| | | | | | | | | q1| q2| q3| q4| q5| q6| q7| | Completely Disagree| 2| 0| 0| 3| 1| 0| 0| | Mostly Disagree| 7| 2| 0| 5| 2| 2| 3| | Neither| 10| 3| 0| 4| 3| 3| 3| | Mostly Agree| 1| 4| 0| 3| 5| 5| 5| | Completly Agree| 0| 11| 20| 5| 9| 10| 9| | 6.3Newberry & Conrad (2010) extensive list of valuable communication skills â€Å"Organizational Communication Skills 1. Initiating open discussion – the ability to create the act of discussion and dialogue exploring opposition by individuals who advocate their positions and convince others to adopt those positions through logic, argument, or debate 2. Resolving conflict – the ability to employ a range of processes aimed at alleviating or eliminating sources of conflict through processes including negotiation, mediation, and diplomacy 3. Creating information networks – the ability to design and institute formal or informal systems for managing the flow of information and providing person-to-person relationships through which information flows 4. Teaching important skills – the ability to provide skill remediation to employees in areas such as job performance, technical competency, interpersonal  communication, and problem solving 5. Using information technology – the ability to employ equipment (usually computers) that enables managers and staff to access ongoing and relevant company information including reports, planning data, and employee and customer feedback 6. Providing performance feedback – the ability to assess employee performance and provide performance feedback as a review of the performance of employees, which helps to set targets for future performance targets 7. Negotiating – the ability to produce an agreement upon courses of action, to bargain for individual or collective advantage, or to craft outcomes to satisfy various interests. 8. Writing business correspondence – the ability to produce written communication used in business including letters, memos, bulletins, and reports 9. Making convincing presentations – the ability to provide informal or formal talks delivered to decision making groups to convey information or make a point Leadership Communication Skills 1. Arousing enthusiasm – the ability to inspire a whole-hearted devotion to an ideal cause, study or pursuit, or merely being visibly excited about what one’s doing 2. Being a change catalyst – the ability to initiate change through provision of information to employees that will convince them of why a change is necessary and will compel them to embrace it 3. Creating group synergy – the ability to compel organizational members to interact and produce a joint effect that is greater than the sum of the members acting alone 4. Building team bonds – the ability to establish team cohesiveness, which is the extent to which members stick together and remain united in the pursuit of a common goal 5. Expressing encouragement – the ability to provide support and confidence raising or increasing one’s self-esteem and confidence to make choices and decisions 6. Providing motivation – the ability to move a person or group toward desired goals by increasing their willingness to exert effort and energy to achieve the goals 7. Being persuasive – the ability to guide people toward the adoption of an idea, attitude, or action by rational, and logical means relying on appeals rather than coercion 8. Building optimism – the ability to create a disposition or tendency to look on the more favorable side of events or conditions and to expect the most favorable outcome despite obstacles and setbacks Interpersonal Communication Skills 1. Active listening – the ability to employ an intrapersonal and interactive process to actively focus on, interpret, and respond verbally and nonverbally to messages 2. Building rapport – the ability to create a harmonious relationship, bond, or kinship based on mutual respect, friendship, camaraderie, or emotional ties making someone feel comfortable and accepted 3. Demonstrating emotion self control – the ability to display balanced moods through retaining, mastering, and dominating one’s reactions provoked by pleasant or unpleasant emotion 4. Building trust – the ability to construct the reciprocal faith in others’ intentions and behavior through a shared belief that you can depend on each other to achieve a common purpose 5. Relating to people of diverse backgrounds – the ability to recognize and respect differences in people and communicate appropriately in verbal and nonverbal exchanges 6. Demonstrating respect – the abil ity to show esteem for or a sense of the worth or excellence of a person, a personal quality or ability, or something considered as a manifestation of a personal quality or ability 7. Building relationships – the ability to establish a relatively long-term association between two or more people based on liking, trust, and respect creating regular business interactions, interdependence, or some other type of social commitment (Newberry & Conrad 2010)†

Why the Choice of Location Is Critical When Expanding Globally Free Essay Example, 1750 words

The entry of a firm in a foreign market has to be designed using specific criteria -the firm's size, the prior experience in regard to similar plans, the level of competitiveness in the global market and the culture of both the host and the target market are used as the criteria on which the choice of a method of entry in a foreign market is based. The method of entry chosen is also highly influenced by the overall international strategy of each firm (Kotabe and Helsen 2009, p. 205). For example, there are firms that aim to keep full control of their establishments in a foreign country (Kotabe and Helsen 2009). On the other hand, certain firms seem to emphasize rather on the employment of local resources rather than on securing control over their units internationally (Kotabe and Helsen 2009). In any case, the decision of a firm for expanding internationally needs to have the support of the stakeholders. The conflicting interests of stakeholders could highly affect the success of a firm s internationalization efforts unless a strategy is implemented for handling these interests effectively within the shortest possible time framework (Triantis 2013). We will write a custom essay sample on Why the Choice of Location Is Critical When Expanding Globally or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/page 2007); c) the business strategy approach ; in the context of this approach, a firm would choose a method of entry that could be aligned with the firm s internal and external environment, as this environment affects the firm s strategy.